Citing examples, define and describe the character, form and contents of the Arts and Crafts garden created by the Gertrude Jekyll & Edwin Lutyens partnership.

As the battle of the styles came to a head, two crucial characters, Gertrude Jekyll and Edwin Lutyens, formed an alliance that would come to define the arts and crafts movement. The arts and crafts movement began out of a desire to move away from traditional Victorian style bedding, as well as the harsh concrete and noisy environment that arose from industrialization, and take on a more naturalistic approach, while still maintaining a high level of craftsmanship. Gertrude Jekyll, being a horticulturalist, brought in a knowledge and understanding of plants, that when tied with Lutyens’ architectural craftsmanship, created a truly unique garden.

Gertrude Jekyll grew up in London with a home garden that inspired her to become the influential garden designer that she eventually became. Trained as a painter, Jekyll had a deep understanding of color that allowed to her excel in studying and planting flowers. She also disliked noise, and preferred that her gardens be surrounded by more natural, woodland areas.

Edwin Lutyens grew up sketching and drawing, and spent a lot of time wandering his childhood home and sketching the landscape. Later on in life, Lutyens became known as the greatest British architect, and specialized in interiors, exteriors, and gardens.

One of the famous collaborations between Gertrude Jekyll and Edwin Lutyens was the Hestercombe house in Somerset, England. Hestercombe house is known for the bold, concise pattern of the layout, as provided by Lutyens, as well as the minute attention to detail that Jekyll brought to the partnership. The garden is also known for using contrasting materials, a sunken parterre, a water garden, and a large pergola. The perfect mixture between wild and structured, manicured and natural, this garden truly defines the arts and crafts movement. 

http://www.gardenvisit.com/assets/madge/hestercombe_gardens_somerset/384x/hestercombe_gardens_somerset_384x.jpg

Explain the Battle of Styles fought over the future of garden design in the last quarter of the 19th century, and the outcome of that Battle.

The Battle of the Styles was one that was fought at the end of the 19^th century, regarding the future of garden design. With numerous characters, style preferences, and inspirations, the battle was ultimately fought between the horticulturalist and the architect, each side with a contrasting idea about what gardens should look like and what their purpose should be.

Two crucial characters in the Battle of Styles were Sir Reginald Blomfield (the architect), and William Robinson (the gardener). Robinson and Blomfield had very contrasting views on what they thought made a magnificent garden. Robinson, being a horticulturalist, felt that the focus of the garden should truly be on the plants, and believed that one must really know and understand the plants used in the garden in order for it to be successful. Because of this, he believed that shape, form, texture, height, fullness and color should all be taken into consideration, as well as blooming time and length. His style was seen as more wild and naturalistic. Robinson disliked the traditional style Victorian garden, and wished to move away from a garden that looked completely manipulated by man.

Blomfield, however, was an architect with a much more structured approach to gardening. Inspired by English and French renaissance styles. He was inspired by clear cut lines and linear images, and focused more on the structure of the garden than the plants in it, contrasting to Robinson’s more wild gardens.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Blomfield

http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multimedia/archive/01075/gardening-graphics_1075750a.jpg

Because of garden designers like Gertrude Jekyll and Sir Edwin Lutyens, there was no real winner of the Battle of Styles, because a new style emerged from the controversy, the arts and crafts garden, which adopted stylistic methods and characteristics from both the architect and the horticulturalist. Together, Jekyll and Lutyens designed Munstead Wood in 1897, and proved that the arts and crafts garden truly embodied the best of both worlds. 

http://kimonamission.files.word

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http://www.godalmingmuseum.org.uk/uploads/im

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Describe the character and uses of the different urban green spaces created in the 19th century and explored on our Field Study, and the ways in which these parks are relevant and beneficial to 21st century urban living.

Green spaces have been designed, cultivated, and used for many different purposes from the 19^th century on, and today we find that a lot of the same methods are still being used. Two contrasting gardens created in the 19^th century include Biddulph Grange, and Chatsworth. These two gardens were created with contrasting views, yet each accomplished to cultivate a particular atmosphere to enhance a certain experience.

            Biddulph Grange, built by James Bateman, was designed to contrast art and nature. The method Bateman used to create a certain style to this garden was one of excess and drama. The garden was built in sections to display a collection of rare and exotic plants from all around the world. Each section was very different, and represented a different traditional gardens from a different place, including Japanese, Egyptian, and English Victorian gardens. This method was used to create a truly unique experience for the visitor, and was also a way to show off Bateman’s rare collection of plants.

            Chatsworth, built around the same time period by Sir Joseph Paxton, had a very differing atmosphere. Although both men constructed their gardens motivated by a love of plants, the outcomes were very different. Chatsworth is a much more subdued garden, although it is no less intricate or sophisticated. Paxton also designed Chatsworth to have different sections each to frame a specific element, including the conservatory, rockery, and the emperor fountain. Paxton developed and cultivated this particular garden over decades, although he is best known for his work on the Crystal Palace.

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            The Green spaces we visited around Copenhagen, although using some of the same design features as gardens of the past, seem to have very different intended uses. The first park we visited, Ørstedsparken, has an enclosed, inward looking style executed using the natural landscape, the downward slopes and trees surrounding the area. It is clear that the use of this park is for quiet walks, contemplation, or gathering to sit and picnic with friends and family. The main focus of the park is the central structure, a small pond, and a few statues and wildflowers growing alongside. 

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Koebenhavn_Oerstedsparken_2009_ubt.JPG

            Another park we visited, the Botanical Gardens, has some of the same features, and also allowed for long walks through winding paths to enjoy the flowers, but also has another use. Similar to the gardens of the 19^th century, the green houses in the Botanical Gardens house exotic plants that can be used to scientific studies, or just to draw in visitors. However, the benches around the paths and in the rock structures also allow for a peaceful, contemplative experience, and I have a feeling this garden, as well as most of the others in Copenhagen, were inspired by a love of plants and nature as well.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Palm_House,_Copenhagen_Botanical_Garden.jpg

             These urban green spaces are crucial to city life because they allow people a much needed escape. The inward focusing, enclosed style of most of the gardens we visited is deliberate, and allows people to truly seek refuge from their daily lives, among the wildflowers, exotic plants, and towering trees. There is something for everyone in these gardens, as long as you are willing to take the time and look.

For the three influential designers and innovators of in the 18th century English Landscape Movement - Charles Bridgeman, William Kent & ‘Capability’ Brown - write a brief paragraph to describe the style - form, layout, content, purpose - of their landscapes.

Charles Bridgeman revolutionized garden landscapes in terms of style, design and content. With Bridgeman’s invention of the ha-ha (a downward slope that meets a vertical wall intended to keep unwanted animals out of the landscape) came a new way to view a landscape completely unobstructed. This new concept of creating gardens to look like landscape paintings, sweeping slopes and clear views, was completely different then past baroque styles where garden elements were much more condensed and man-made. Although Bridgeman’s gardens did contain some baroque features, including parterres, avenues, and geometric lakes, he was most known for his transitional and progressive structures, which included garden buildings and long winding paths. 

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Despite his little knowledge of horticulture, William Kent became Charles Bridgeman’s predecessor, and took many of his new ideas and concepts for landscape design a step further. Kent, considered one of the originators of the English landscape garden, used a style of ‘natural’ gardening, so that although the land he worked with was heavily manipulated, the landscape looked completely natural, as if it was wild nature which created the scenery rather than the careful and meticulous planning that was really involved. Kent viewed all nature as a garden, and adapted the concept of ‘borrowed scenery’, creating focal points and clear views in order to truly take advantage of all the landscape had to offer.

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In 1741, Lancelot ‘Capability’ Brown joined the gardening staff at Stowe, Buckinghamshire, and served under William Kent. Capability Brown’s style was considered ‘garden-less’ gardening, blurring the lines of natural and man-made even more-so than William Kent. His landscapes were indistinguishable from wild nature, despite the fact that they were perfectly constructed. Brown used long winding paths so that the viewer was never bored, but constantly seeing new features around the bend. Brown also used borrowed landscapes, and the deliberate placement of clusters of trees to create focal points in the garden structures, as well as creating a certain sense of being truly immersed in nature. With Brown’s designs, the garden at Stowe became a centerpiece for English landscape gardens. 

http://www.gardenvisit.com/assets/madge/stowe_grecian_vale/original/stowe_grecian_vale_original.jpg

Explain why Versailles Palace and Gardens were built, and the role they played during the rule of King Louis XIV

The Versailles Château is one of the most impressive achievements of French 18^th century art, and it began quite humbly as a hunting lodge for King Louis XIII. The lodge was originally used as a get-away for King Louis and his mistresses. However, in 1664, his son, Louis XIV invited the designers of Vaux-le-Vicomte to expand the château to the state in which it earned recognition. Louis XIV’s Versailles held a very different purpose.

http://theplanetd.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/France-Palace-of-Versailles-Gardens.jpg 

When looking at Louis XIV’s character and ruling methods, it becomes clearer why he built such a grand structure, with an expansive garden surrounded by walls, perhaps to keep intruders out, as well as to keep an eye on those inside. It is important to recognize that Louis XIV was a very powerful king, who believed he was only accountable to God, but also that a childhood trauma stayed with him his entire life, and made him wary of the nobility and upper classes. This fact portrays another motive to creating the infamous Versailles rather than simply gaining recognition.  

Because of King Louis paranoia that the nobility would one day turn on him, he invited all of those involved in the government to stay in the palace, and built expansively so that they could comfortably stay under his watch. The palace and gardens were built to impress, to be a constant reminder not only to the nobility, but also to peasants or any other visitor that Louis invited of just how all-powerful he was. He achieved this image with revolutionary architecture that gave a new meaning to perspective within the garden, sweeping landscapes of grass and manicured ewes, and magnificent fountains.

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The gardens of Versailles not only gave King Louis XIV recognition, power, and control while also making him infamous. The gardens also gave Louis protection, and peace of mind, two things that such a powerful leader would have never admit to needing. The massive fountains showed guests that Louis was the most powerful man in France, with access to more water than was used daily by the rest of the city, and the walls showed Louis that he would perhaps be safe from being dethroned. 

http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/top-10/gardens/

A deeper look into medieval monastic gardens, structure, use of herbs, and religious influence.

Historically, the gardens that tend to become long-lasting, beautiful landmarks are those that are grand, expansive, and accompanied by an equally impressive villa, castle, or palace. However, what interests me are the gardens in history that may no longer structurally be around, but nevertheless impacted the act of gardening in structure, practice, and utility. This is why I chose to look deeper in the monastic gardens of the medieval times, not quite as ornamental or impressive as the royal gardens, but just as crucial to the history of gardening.

It is said that monasteries created the original herb garden, a practice which is still being used today. The traditional structure of raised, single planted beds of the monastic herb garden is typical of many modern herb gardens today because of the ease of harvesting and moving in between each crop. Unlike many of the grand, royal gardens we have studied so extensively, monastic gardens were to be harvested with purpose, which is why they primarily grew herbs for medicine, as well as spices, fruits and vegetables for cooking. These gardens were not a sign of wealth or status, but one of a simplistic lifestyle which required complete self-sufficiency.

http://www.gardenvisit.com/garden/coulommiers_medieval_garden

Just as religion played a significant role in a monasteries lifestyle, it also greatly influenced gardening techniques. One interesting facet of the monk's philosophy is that they believed completely in natural healing, which is why herbs were used as medicine. However, illnesses were also generally seen as a punishment from God, so although herbs were used, they were rarely accredited with healing powers. If it was God’s will to heal, the herbs would only assist, and if the herbs did not work, it was because God made it so. This led to herbalist practices that were rarely reformed because the herbs were never seen as the direct problem to death or disease.

http://www.gardenvisit.com/history_theory/library_online_ebooks/ml_gothein_history_garden_art_design/monastery_garden_plans

Of course, monks did see the intrinsic value of gardening along with the utilitarian. They used flowers and other aromatic plants to decorate the church, and used them in their homes as well. I think monastic gardens are interesting and also important to study because they used practices that are more personally relatable, and are on a scale that is obviously much more realistic. These gardens remind me that I am studying garden art not only because of the overwhelming experience of stepping into a grand, royal garden, but because most of the wonder of gardening that I have encountered has been through harvesting crops that are useful in everyday life. 

http://www.lewespriory.org.uk/the-original-herb-garden

Other sources:

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/medny/herbgdn1.html

http://www.herbsociety.org.uk/hg-were-monks-gardeners.htm

http://www.medievalists.net/2013/01/06/herbs-and-drugs-in-monastic-gardens/

Explain with examples the ways in which the Renaissance spirit of a rediscovery of the classics and the new Humanist ways of thinking were expressed in the design and content of the Italian Renaissance garden.

The Renaissance was an incredible time of rediscovery, rebirth, and reevaluation about man's relationship with god and with the earthly world. The areas of life that were most affected by this transformation were the arts, painting, sculpture, literature, and of course, gardens. The rediscovery of ancient Roman texts, as well as the more modern mathematic advances in the art world, which led to a revolutionary take on perspective, influenced all aspects of garden design. 

Because of newly introduced humanist theories, the structure of the garden began to revolve less around the gods or nature, and more around the people enjoying them. Villas became the center piece for the garden, which would be built around this structure in a way that would maximize enjoyment of the landscape.

http://www.castlefarms.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Kings-Grand-Courtyard.jpg

Often built on hills, around natural springs, these gardens were used as an accessory to the villa, to create a certain feeling for the person walking through the garden before reaching the main destination, the villa. The villa would often be built on the top of the hill, with the garden descending downward so that the owner of the villa could look onto it and be able to see the entire landscape.

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Gardens built during the Renaissance were grand, using ornate fountains, lots of running water, and exotic plants. Because of the recent importance and use of mathematics within art, the architecture of gardens became very geometric, with symmetry and axial unity. New concepts of art and perspective were introduced during the Renaissance, which influenced the fluidity of a garden, and made the architecture of the garden along with the villa a more holistic plan. These gardens were all about aesthetics, and all to be treasured by the people. The grandness of the garden was used to amuse and impress visitors. The Renaissance was a time to delight in and appreciate art and beauty, and gardens were certainly no exception. 

http://www.romecityapartments.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/t1.jpg

In Roman, Mediæval and Muslim cultures how did /does the garden play a role in their respective religions?

Despite the obvious and extensive contrasts between Roman, Mediæval and Muslim cultures, their use of and purpose for gardens is similar in that it connects each of them to divinity and spirituality in different ways. Within each culture, the structure, design, and content of the gardens work together to create a feeling of peace or promote worship within their respective religions.

Within Roman culture, the gardens (for the upper classes) were used both to stimulate intellectual thought, and to admire beauty. Often, times spent in the garden would spark enlightening and philosophical conversation. Naturally, these concepts also brought up the topic of religion. The Romans considered themselves very religious, and used gardens as a way to admire the gods, and maintain a good relationship with them through worship. They would do this by using statues and fountains depicting the gods as a center piece for the garden space.

http://blog.metmuseum.org/cloistersgardens/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/20060622-general-view.jpg

People of the Mediæval times used gardens in a religious context as well, although in a very different manner. I suppose the monasteries of the Mediæval times would consider Roman gardens to be garish and over the top, because their gardens were utilitarian, rather than for leisure. The monks were self-sufficient, and therefore their gardens were sensibly designed, planted with everything they needed in the small community, including fruits, vegetables and spices.

However, another type of Mediæval garden was more extravagant, because it was supposed to be symbolic of paradise. These gardens used imagery from the story of Eden. Plant symbolism and statues were both used to depict Eve in the garden as pure, while her surroundings were lush and green, signifying a place of paradise.

http://blog.metmuseum.org/cloistersgardens/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/20060622-general-view.jpg

The gardens of Islam relied heavily on physical structure of the garden to depict religious themes. The use of water was very prevalent in Islamic gardens in creating the quadripartite structure, used first by the Romans, to divide the garden into four sections, symbolic of the four rivers in the Garden of Eden. The Qur’an, being at the center of Islamic religion, was used as a backbone in creating beautiful gardens, based on the prophet Muhammad’s saying “God is beautiful and he loves beauty” and also references to the “Gardens of paradise.” Muslims sought the concept earthly paradise in their garden settings, and hoped that they could recreate heaven on earth through the use of lush plants, beautiful flowers, and flowing water. 

Why do you think gardens have always been an intrinsic part of European culture?

Throughout these first couple weeks of class, studying diverse cultures like the Roman Empire, Grecian societies, and medieval times, it is clearer to me than ever before just how interconnected gardens have been throughout history in all different aspects of life. From Roman otium, to a medieval serf's need to supplement the diet, gardens, both on a large and small scale, are an integral piece of society. 

Gardening has always been very important to me, because I grew up exploring and learning about nature in my grandmother’s lush vegetable and herb garden, and spent my free time running around and scraping my knees in my mother’s flower garden. However, this is the first time I have really had the opportunity to explore gardens from a historical perspective, and it turns out even thousands of years ago, they were using gardens for some of the same reasons that I still do, as an escape.

Before technology, globalization, and our ability to have oranges all around the world in the dead of winter, serfs, villeins, and townspeople in the medieval times were supplying the nourishment for their own diets in their backyards. What has struck me during these past couple weeks of studying these ancient societies is that people thousands of years ago were much more connected and dependent on the land, something that many would say we are moving towards once again because of the local food movement. However, in these times, it was the common folk who had utilitarian gardens, while the ruling class had the luxury of a lush, sweeping garden for leisure and peace of mind. In this way, gardens are not only universal, but extraordinarily diverse in practice and application, as they still are. Gardens have transformed throughout time to fill the void we need them for at the time. Whether they are for aesthetic or useful purposes, a garden can be used by anyone, which is why they have been so prevalent throughout history, and are still relevant today. 

The Romans’ practice of otium in their gardens was something I connected with as well. Their appreciation of leisure time, and use of gardens or green space to do something creative or enlightening is something that has become very important to me, and for my own piece of mind, as I often use my access to gardens to think, reflect, or write. I suppose that the greatest surprise I have learned so far is that despite the great differences between our current modern societies, and those thousands of years ago, we still value gardens, and use green space in similar ways, both for usefulness and for leisure time.